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China sees no evil, hears no angry in Africa - absolutely the affectionate of aspect African dictators, annoyed of Western lectures, relish. But the botheration is not China. It is African leaders who adamantly debris to apprentice from their own history, which teaches that every adopted article that goes to the abstemious does so to accompany its own interest.
In the aboriginal genitalia of the 21st century, China became an important antecedent of accounts for African development. The continent's basement was in disrepair; it had channelled afterwards decades of abject carelessness and abolition from absurd civilian wars. A abundant advance was - and still is - bare to clean this infrastructure. According to a Apple Coffer Address (2009), "the poor accompaniment of basement in Sub-Saharan Africa--its electricity, water, anchorage and advice and communications technology (ICT)--cuts civic bread-and-butter advance by two allotment believability every year and reduces abundance by as abundant as 40 percent." To abutting the basement gap, an anniversary spending of $93 billion would be required. Africa has to absorb $360 billion on basement by 2040, according to the African Development Coffer (AfDB).
Africa, however, did not accept the funds but had accustomed resources, which China bare to augment its bread-and-butter apparatus galloping at a boundless 9 percent blow in 2006. So China went attractive for assets in Africa and elsewhere, admiring African leaders with adept platitudes about "equal terms" and aerial promises of adopted aid afterwards conditions. It declared 2006 the "Year for Africa" and convened an Africa Appointment in Beijing in November. That was music to the aerial of African leaders, afflicted at the West's affirmation on conditionalities for its aid. Operating on the beguiling angle that "the adversary of my adversary is my friend," 48 African active of accompaniment - mostly from sub-Saharan Africa - tripped over themselves to the conference, threw absorption to the wind and began signing a blast of "infrastructure-for-resources" deals or exchanges. These deals were accustomed as win-win for both. As Benjamin (2017) noted,
"Within a decade some 1 actor Chinese had confused to Africa, while Chinese-African arrangement rose by a agency of 10, to $115 billion. Chinese absolute advance skyrocketed to added than $9 billion from beneath than $0.5 billion in 2003 (although the United States charcoal the continent's bigger broker overall). China is now the bigger trading accomplice for the abstemious (including North Africa). Chinese arrangement with Africa hit $222 billion in 2014, authoritative China the region's bigger trading accomplice for a sixth afterwards year."
Among the Chinese projects are the Husab uranium abundance in Namibia, a Chinese aggressive abject in Djibouti, an $8 billion accelerated railway through Nigeria and a $4 billion, 466-mile transnational railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa in Ethiopia already congenital or underway beyond the continent.[1] Chinese mining investments accept added 25-fold in aloof 10 years, from stakes in a few mines to added than 120 in 2015.[2]
However in 2015, China's abridgement hit the skits, abbreviation appeal for Africa's raw materials. To advice alleviate the discomfort, Chinese Admiral Xi Jinping apprenticed $60 billion to the abstemious over three years in loans, consign credits and grants in December 2015.[3] Well-intentioned perhaps, but China is absurd to abide an important antecedent of accounts for acceptable development goals (SDGs). Alike then, new affirmation has abominably emerged that questions the believability of the Chinese antecedent of finance.
Chinese investments in Africa did not aftermath the august "win-win" after-effects best analysts had expected. In abounding countries, the "infrastructure-for-resources" deals were of arguable nature. Beneath abounding of those deals, some adumbral Chinese middlemen or syndicates undertook achievability studies, estimated the bulk of the basement activity and again accustomed costs from China's EX-IM bank. For repayment, they accepted a breakthrough of the African country's assets to be alien to China -essentially a arrangement deal.
Under this scheme, there was every allurement to aerate the bulk and accomplish the accord as "gargantuan" as possible. The college the bulk estimate, the beyond the accommodation and the beyond the loan, the greater the breakthrough of assets that has to be alien to China for repayment. A aerial bulk appraisal acutely benefited the Chinese aggregation that would undertake the architecture as that translated into huge profits. And the added gargantuan the loan, the added arrogant the African arch of state, who stood to abstract abundant political breadth from it. For example, China offered ex-president, Capt. Moussa Dadis Camara of Guinea, a $7 billion "infrastructure-for-resources" accord in 2009. Guinea's GNP was abandoned $4.5 billion. Throughout its history, no article has accustomed Guinea such a huge accommodation -- and alike one that exceeded its GNP; not alike the Apple Coffer came close.
What the almsman African country got in acknowledgment was basement at grossly aggrandized bulk that ability or ability not be delivered and some political PR mileage. And if the African government wavered, the Chinese were accommodating to body a presidential alcazar or a sports amphitheater as "gifts from China."
Ordinarily, such a accord would be flagged by auditors and civilian association but in abounding cases, it was about a "closed shop" deal, buried in secrecy, and active with mostly absolute regimes. The deals were generally blurred with no accessible and aggressive behest - all ample in China's favor. If approved, it was a Chinese aggregation that undertook the basement projects with its own abstracts and workers, breeding bare application opportunities for the locals. And there was no aegis adjoin bulk over-runs. A year or added later, the Chinese aggregation could jack up the bulk estimate, adage it erred in its antecedent estimation. Such was the case with the Bui Dam Activity in Ghana. The absolute bulk of the dam's architecture was initially estimated at $622 actor in 2009, but a bulk analysis conducted in 2012 aloft that bulk by $168 million. [4]
We altercate three case studies.
A $23 billion accord for Nigeria
A archetypal case was the $23 billion accord China active with Nigeria -- an oil-producing country that does not aftermath abundant aesthetic petroleum articles for its bodies and charge acceptation 85 percent of them. China was to body three refineries with a accumulated accommodation of 750,000 barrels a day that would beat the calm appeal of some 450,000 b/d. In exchange, China basic to grab one-sixth of Nigeria's 36 billion barrels of oil reserves.[5]
The bulk tag of $8 billion for a refinery with the accommodation of 250,000 b/d was abandoned as compared to these prices:
In Oct 2002, Admiral Obasanjo laid the foundation bean of the $1.5 billion Tonwei Refinery in Bayelsa State. The Tonwei Refinery would accept an antecedent accommodation of 100,000 bbl/d and it can be broadcast to 200,000 bbl/d.[6]
In Egypt, China will body a $2 billion refinery that would be the bigger such bulb in the Arab nation and Africa. The accommodation of the refinery will annually bulk to 15 actor bags or 105 actor barrels of oil or 287,671 bbl/d.[7]
Clearly, the bulk that China accuse for architecture oil refineries varies berserk amid African countries. Alike added abandoned was what China was ambitious in arrangement -- a sixth of Nigeria's 36 billion oil reserves. A simple multiplication by the bulk of oil at $107 a butt in 2010 yielded $642 billion, which was what China was ambitious for a $23 billion basement project.
In July 2012, Nigeria active a announcement of compassionate with Vulcan Petroleum Assets for a $4.5 billion activity to body six refineries with a accumulated 180,000-barrel a day capacity. Vulcan, an associate of New York-based clandestine disinterestedness close Vulcan Basic Corp, aimed to accept two of the refineries accomplished in beneath a year.[8]
A $3 billion accord for Ghana
In 2012, China offered Ghana a $3 billion accommodation on arrangement terms. The accommodation was to be acclimated to adjust portions of Ghana's battered railway system, body basement to abduction gas that would contrarily be flared from oil production, and the about-face of roads. In arrangement for the loan, China accepted a circadian accumulation of Ghana awkward of 13,000 barrels - the absolute allocation of the Government of Ghana's allotment in Jubilee Oilfields - for the abutting fifteen and bisected years! The cardinal NDC government, which had a majority in parliament, agreed to assurance the deal.[9]
A few acclamation on a arrangement calculator would acknowledge that over the fifteen and bisected year period, 74 actor barrels of oil would be alien to China. The amount at the bulk of awkward oil of $107 in 2010 per barrel, works out to be $8.1 billion. Nice claim for a accommodation of $3 billion.
The $4 billion "Lunatic Express" in Kenya
On June 6, 2017, Admiral Uhuru Kenyatta launched a $4 billion, 300-mile railway band abutting the capital, Nairobi, to the Indian Ocean anchorage of Mombasa - the best big-ticket basement activity back Kenya's ability 54 years ago and one-fifth of its civic budget. China's Eximbank provided about 90 percent of the allotment for Nairobi-Mombasa project. The accommodation has already pushed the Kenyan debt aloft 50 percent of GDP, and imports of Chinese food and abstracts appropriate to body the railway are authoritative bodies afraid about Kenya's deepening arrangement alterity with China.[10] Pamphlets heralding the accession of the Express were in Chinese. Some agents associates wore uniforms of red and gold -- the colors of China's flag. Alike the music on the alternation wasn't Kenyan. And to add insult to injury, a carve of Mao Zedong at the Mombasa base was absolutely that of Zheng He, a 15th-century Chinese charlatan who sailed to East Africa.[11] In a accompanying railway project, the barrage of Madaraka Express inter-county alternation was adjourned "because the Managing Director Atanas Maina said, 'China Road and Bridge Corporation employees, who were key to the operations, had aloof accustomed in the country and bare time to go through the handover process'."[12]
"Sweet and Sour" deals
In those "sweet and sour" deals (sweet for China but acerb for Africa), there were added costs. Back the deals were active with mostly absolute African governments, they were not cellophane or accountable to scrutiny. In abounding cases, they were anchored through secrecy, absolute bribery, kickbacks - for example, architecture a presidential alcazar for Sudan's despot, altruistic the dejected tiles that beautify Robert Mugabe's new £7 actor alcazar in Harare, a ample Namibian presidential alcazar in Windhoek, and sports stadiums in Congo DR and Guinea.[13]
In July 2008, there was clamor over the China-Niger oil deal. Civilian rights groups alleged for a aldermanic analysis into the $5 billion (£2.5 billion) arrangement and for analysis of how funds would be spent. China's accompaniment oil aggregation was accustomed oil analysis rights in Niger in June. "A mining abutment in Niger said the accord with China took abode in the greatest of clandestineness and with antipathy for regulation."[14] In Nov 2011, Niger vowed to agency an analysis of the Soraz oil refinery actuality congenital by Chinese oil company, CNCP, with a accommodation of 20,000 barrels per day, afterwards the bulk tag rose to $980 actor from $600 million.[15] It may be acclaimed that the aforementioned refinery with the aforementioned accommodation congenital by China in Chad bulk abandoned $60 million.[16]
In July 2009, Namibian prosecutors began investigating allegations of bribery kickbacks on government diplomacy with China. One complex a arrangement to accumulation Namibia with scanners at aegis checkpoints. The Beijing-based Nuctech Companies Limited that makes the scanners was headed until 2008 by the son of Hu Jintao, China's president. Nuctech was accused of accepting paid $4.2 actor in kickbacks to a Namibian advanced company.[17] Addition analysis complex a Chinese arrangement to body a key railroad articulation as prosecutors burrowed through a web of bribery on deals with China.
On July 4, 2010, Luanda's accepted hospital abandoned 150 patients over worries that the four-year-old, $8 actor Chinese-built anatomy could collapse, Angola's accompaniment radio reported. [18].
In Guinea, the Chinese syndicate, Queensway, set up a collective venture, African Development Corporation (ADC), with 85% allotment and the government with the actual 15%. Guinea has the world's bigger affluence of bauxite and its bigger beginning affluence of high-grade adamant ore. ADC won absolute rights to new mineral concessions in Guinea, including the appropriate to accommodate oil-production diplomacy in the Gulf of Guinea. In return, the syndicate promised to advance up to $7 billion in housing, carriage and accessible utilities. Guinea's GDP is about $4.5 billion. Queensway syndicate was so admiring that it gave Guinea's aggressive ruler, Captain Moussa Dadis Camara, a helicopter as a gift.
In Zimbabwe, the syndicate created a new company, alleged Sino-Zimbabwe Development Limited, which accustomed rights to abstract oil and gas, and to abundance gold, platinum and chromium. In return, the aggregation about promised to body railways, airports and accessible housing. These pledges were admired at $8 billion by Mr Mugabe's government. But as The Economist (Aug 13, 2011) noted,
"Queensway syndicate bootless to accommodated abounding of the obligations. Zimbabwe is still apprehension alike a atom of its promised infrastructure. Chinese appurtenances beatific to Africa are belled for their poor quality. None of a addition of 50 buses to Zimbabwe formed and an adjustment for 250 added was suspended. Of three MA60 commuter jets the Chinese beatific to Mugabe, one never managed to fly, one had to accomplish an emergency landing at Victoria Falls, abasing abounding passengers, and the third bent blaze on abandonment in Harare in Nov 2008. All were grounded. And Guinea never accustomed the 100 accessible buses that were meant to admission aural 45 canicule of the 2009 deal."
The accomplishment of some SDGs would be difficult with the arrival of Chinese appurtenances and workers. Accouterment manufacturers in Lesotho, Nigeria and Zambia accuse bitterly of arrangement Chinese appurtenances antibacterial their markets and jobs. In Nigeria, the flood of Chinese articles has devastated Kano's accomplishment sector. In 1982, 500 factories aerated out bolt articles in Kano, but beneath than 100 abide operational today, best at far beneath than abounding capacity. Kano's Kwari bolt market, the bigger in West Africa, now arrangement Chinese fabrics and clothing. A decade ago, 80 percent of the bolt awash at Kwari was fabricated in Nigeria, compared with 5 percent in 2012.[19] There are added beggars and added arresting signs of abjection in Kano than anytime before. It is not adopted to articulation the collapse of the bolt industry in arctic Nigeria with the acceleration of the agitator group, Boko Haram.
Textile factories no best activity Africa's adolescence application opportunities and adolescence unemployment has now become a active time bomb in Africa. Disenchanted youth, disillusioned over abridgement of jobs started the Arab Spring in 2011.[20] Added adolescence larboard their countries and boarded on alarming crossings beyond the Sahara arid to seek greener pastures in Europe, with bags drowning in the Mediterranean Sea. Still added unemployed adolescence fell casualty to abolitionist account and were recruited by agitator groups...
Unable to attempt with Chinese imports, bolt factories in Lesotho bankrupt in 2003 and 2004, throwing over 5,000 workers out of their jobs. In South Africa, the bolt abutment said some 100,000 jobs accept been absent as Chinese constructed fabrics replaced affection prints in artery markets beyond Africa. In 2007, the unions threatened to avoid anyone diplomacy Chinese products. [21]
In Ghana, "there were added than 20 bolt firms that active added than 20,000 bodies in 1995. In 2012, the industry had abandoned 4 bolt factories, employing beneath than 3,000 Ghanaians. The country's already advancing bolt bazaar is now abounding with Chinese abominable bolt products, accordingly surging the unemployment rate. The bearings has added attenuated with the bolt companies currently in operation now employing some 2,961 people."[22]
Africans acquired little account from the "infrastructure-for-resources" deals with China back they offered bare application opportunities. Not abandoned did they abort bolt jobs but China brought its own workers into Africa. The Chinese additionally invaded sectors commonly aloof for locals. In July 2011, boutique owners in Uganda's capital, Kampala, shut their businesses to beef adjoin a attenuated bill and the arrival of Chinese traders."[23] In August 2011, Ghana began arresting adopted nationals, mostly Chinese, illegally affianced in artisanal gold mining.
"Twenty-seven Chinese nationals affianced in actionable gold mining activities, arrangement alleged "galamsey" operating in the Ankobra River at Kutukrom, abreast Prestea, Sikane-Asem and Tumantu in the Western Region, accept been arrested by a collective military-police-immigration team. The badge additionally bedeviled from them three pump activity rifles, 41 pieces of BB alive cartridges, two walkie-talkies, 19 Chinese passports, four adaptable phones, a metal safe with keys and their machines."[24]
Further, the Chinese deals accomplished the base cardinal elites. Angola, Nigeria, Sudan, and Zimbabwe are examples area the arrangement and oil deals with China accept not benefited the poor. The Marange design fields in Zimbabwe, adjudged to be one of the bigger in the apple with an estimated amount of added than $10 billion, were developed with the advice of the Chinese company, Anjin. Acquirement from design auction was plundered by the cardinal elite, aggressive and aegis offices. Actual little of the acquirement begin its way into government coffers.[25] "The Chinese are creaming off millions in adamantine bill from Marange design fields through an acceding which allows them to milk 90% of the acquirement generated from the deal, depriving the country of added than $200 actor to date."[26]
Chinese investments and aid, disingenuously declared as with no strings attached, is accomplishing grave abuse to Africa. First, it has been propping up hideously backbreaking regimes in Ethiopia, Guinea, Sudan, and Zimbabwe.[27] Second, China's added assurance with Africa impedes the continent's awkward accomplish adjoin autonomous accountability and bigger governance. The West fabricated its aid codicillary on advance adjoin ameliorate in several areas, including autonomous pluralism, the aphorism of law, animal rights, abridgement of affix and bigger admission to education. China never appropriate these arduous commitments. Any rogue administration that spits acidity at Apple Coffer conditionalities was accustomed by China.
Indeed in 2002, an I.M.F. aggregation went to Angola to advice the country put its banking diplomacy in order. It was addled by Angola's bandit economy, and alike added by the accord of its arch officials. Though the administration apprenticed $3 billion account of loans in 2001 alone, one chief official told the I.M.F. aggregation that Angola had taken out no bartering loans in contempo years.[28] In March 2002, the I.M.F. appear that admitting years of assistance, the government's diplomacy remained hopelessly opaque, that admiral had fended off all demands for ameliorate and appropriately that "it would be actual difficult for Angola to codify a allusive poverty-reduction strategy." A "donors' conference" was appointed for that July. But afterwards the I.M.F. report, the United States and Britain pulled out, and Angola, still acutely in debt admitting billions in oil revenue, was larboard to bitterly contemplate its options. Luckily for Angola, a new benefactor had aloof materialized. China came to the accomplishment with a $2 billion oil deal.
There were several added African countries that actually told Western donors and multilateral banking institutions to go jump into the Atlantic Ocean. Best disturbing, the West caved. Alarmed by the appropriate China was authoritative in Africa, the European Abutment agilely convened a EU-Africa Acme in April 2014. It brought calm added than 60 EU and African leaders, and a absolute of 90 delegations, to altercate the approaching of EU-Africa relations and reinforce links amid the two continents. Not to be outdone, the US organized its own US Africa Acme in August 2014, with active of accompaniment and chief government admiral from 50 African countries. Nowhere on the two acme agendas was ameliorate alike mentioned -- a bright authorization to dictators to do what they wanted. But there has been some backlash. The abstemious that suffered so abundant from Western corruption and abuse is not acceptable to booty addition anatomy of corruption from any adopted quarter.
Rising anti-Chinese sentiments
China is not to accusation for deals that went sour. It knows what it wants in Africa and cares beneath what it takes to get it. It will allurement if has to. It congenital a $200 actor arrant new address for the African Abutment in Addis Ababa.[29] China sees no evil, hears no angry in Africa - absolutely the affectionate of aspect African dictators, annoyed of Western lectures, relish.
China drives a adamantine arrangement and should not be faulted.[30] The botheration has been African leaders who adamantly debris to apprentice from their own history which teaches that every adopted article that goes to Africa does so to accompany its own interest. Americans go to Africa to accompany American interests, the French to accompany French interests, Arabs, Arab interests and so on. Certainly, the Chinese are not in Africa because they adulation atramentous bodies so much. This is a angle African leaders charge to understand
It is bright that Africa leaders hardly pursued African interests, except their own which is active up depression in abounding countries. The antecedent activity that greeted China in Africa has now cooled. "There is ascent argument to China's deepening forays into Africa" said Account Africa (March 2007). Former Admiral Thabo Mbeki of South Africa warned adjoin acceptance China's advance for raw abstracts to become a "new anatomy of neo-colonialist adventure" with African raw abstracts exchanged for base bogus imports and little absorption to advance an bankrupt continent.[31] Rene N'Guetta Kouassi, the arch of the African Union's bread-and-butter diplomacy administration echoed this warning: "Africa charge not jump blindly from one blazon of neo-colonialism into Chinese-style neo-colonialism."[32] Some African commentators are beneath charitable, accusatory what they see as "chopsticks mercantilism," alluding to the chopsticks ability with which China picks off at its leisure platinum from Zimbabwe, chestnut from Zambia, and oil from Angola, Nigeria and Sudan.
The backfire adjoin Chinese investments has been decidedly able in Zambia due to abode accidents, poor alive altitude and below-minimum allowance pay at Chinese-run chestnut mines. Added than 50 Zambian workers died in a 2005 abundance access and dozens of others were sacked by Chinese aegis guards in 2006. In the countdown to Zambia's accepted acclamation in September 2006, the action baton Michael Sata fabricated China's advance in the country a advance issue. According to Sata, Chinese businesses apply almost few Zambians. "Our Chinese don't accompany in any accessories or actualize any alive employment. In fact, to every Zambian in a Chinese company, there are about 15 Chinese . . . Sata alleged the Chinese profiteers, not investors, in a country area unemployment is about 50 percent and added than 73 percent of bodies alive in poverty. Chinese advance has not added any amount to the bodies of Zambia," he charged.[33] In a arrant appearance of arrogance, Chinese Agent Li Baodong warned Zambians that China ability bisect adept ties with Zambia if Sata became admiral and accustomed Taiwan. The agent additionally aloft the bogeyman of a arrest in Chinese investment. But Zambians were unfazed; they adopted Michael Sata in Sept 2011 but anesthetized abroad in October 2014.
Militants in Nigeria's airy oil-producing arena detonated a car bomb in May 2006 and issued a admonishing that investors and admiral from China would be "treated as thieves" and targeted in approaching attacks. A agent for the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) said in an e-mail beatific to account organizations that the car-bomb advance was "the final warning" afore the militants angry their absorption to oil workers, accumulator facilities, bridges, offices and added "soft oil industry targets."[34] In Ethiopia, the Ogaden Civic Liberation Advanced (ONLF) has warned Chinese activity analysis companies adjoin operating in the Ogaden Region. In April 2007, nine Chinese workers were dead in an advance by armed men on an oil acreage in eastern Ethiopia.[35]
We accept discussed this Africa China accord at breadth because this about-face of contest is adverse and charge be accursed in no ambiguous terms. Arrangement with China or any added adopted nation should accompany allowances to both parties. But these attacks adjoin the Chinese are acceptable to abide as continued as the arrangement deals do not account the bodies in some African countries and it is difficult to altercate if added arrangement with or advance from China will advice the African poor.
* GEORGE B N AYITTEY is a built-in of Ghana. He acquired his PhD from the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada, in 1981. In 1990, he became a Distinguished Economist in Residence at American University, Washington DC, until he retired in 2010. Dr. Ayittey has accounting several books on Africa, including Indigenous African Institutions, Africa Betrayed, Africa in Chaos, Africa Unchained, Defeating Dictators, Applied Economics for Africa. He is currently the Admiral of the Free Africa Foundation in Washington DC, which serves as a agitator for reform. This article was ahead acquaint in Al Mariam's Commentaries.
References
African development Coffer (2015). Assessing Advance in Africa Adjoin the MDGs https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/MDG_Report_2015.pdf
Benjamin, Matthew, 2017, "Sub-Saharan Africa: Will it achieve its bread-and-butter footing?" Sage Business Researcher, June 7, 2017.
[2] See The New York Times Magazine, May 2, 2017, http://tinyurl.com/msm8eyx.
[3] See The Wall Artery Journal, Dec. 4, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/my4g8ko.
[4] See "China is architecture a third of Africa's new ability capacity" Climate Home, April 7, 2016 www.hydroworld.com/articles/2008/09/china-signs-financing-for-ghanas-400-mw-bui.html
[5] See Banking Times, May 15, 2010: http://on.ft.com/wkh4vn).
[6] See Vanguard, October 21, 2002. http://allafrica.com/stories/200210230287.html
[7] See Reuters, May 2, 2010. http://af.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idAFJOE64105S20100502
[8] See Tim Cocks and Camillus Eboh, "Nigeria signs $4.5 bln refineries accord with Vulcan Petroleum," Reuters, July 3, 2012 http://www.reuters.com/article/ozatp-nigeria-refineries-idAFJOE86200820120703
[9] See Circadian Guide, Feb 29, 2012: http://bit.ly/xfmQdP.
[10] See Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura, "Kenyans Fear Chinese-Backed Railway Is Addition 'Lunatic Express,"The New York Times, June 8, 2017. https://mobile.nytimes.com/2017/06/08/world/africa/kenyans-fear-chinese-backed-railway-is-another-lunatic-express.html?mwrsm=facebook&referer=http://m.facebook.com
[11] Ibid.
[12] See "Launch of Madaraka Express inter-county alternation postponed" Circadian Nation, June 30, 2017 http://www.nation.co.ke/news/Madaraka-Express-inter-county-train-launch-postponed/1056-3994696-ruedmqz/index.html
[13] See RW Johnson, "China Empire-Builder Sweep Up Africa's Riches," The Sunday Times, July 16, 2006 https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/chinas-empire-builders-sweep-up-african-riches-lgr0ngvlmms
[14] See, "Outcry Over China-Niger Oil Deal,"BBC, July 30, 2008 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7534315.stm.
[15] See Reuters, Nov 24, 2011.
[16] See AFP, Jan 20, 2012.
[17] See Sharon LaFraniere and John Grobler, "China Spreads Aid in Africa, With a Catch," The New York
